Hillbilly Music: Source and Resource by Ed Kahn
The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 78, No. 309, Hillbilly Issue (Jul. - Sep., 1965),pp. 257-266
ED KAHN
HILLBILLY MUSIC: SOURCE AND RESOURCE
University of California
IN 1877 THOMAS A. EDISON recorded "Mary Had a Little Lamb" on his prototype of the phonograph, but not until I890 did commercial recording get under way. Though popular airs of the day were available as early as 1890 through "coin-in-the-slot" operations found in public places around the United States, the phonograph's invasion of the home market did not begin until the winter of 1895-1896.
Technical improvement and a widened recorded repertoire gradually advanced the phonograph record and its affiliated industry to the position of a major force in American popular culture. As the industry expanded and developed, priceless documents were preserved on records. But these documents, at least as far as they relate to the study of traditional music, have been almost completely overlooked by the folklorist. We are just now, however, coming to realize that account must be taken of the commercial tradition if we hope to achieve any understanding of the process of the tradition of folk music in a complex industrial society. Folk music certainly does not now, if it ever did, function in the ideal model folk culture in which the members of the society are homogeneous and the transmission of folklore is unaffected by print or other forms of the mass media of communication. Though it may be distasteful, we are now forced to modify our model to include these factors if we hope to come to grips with the exciting theoretical problems which the study of folksong raises. It is useful to contrast the state of research in hillbilly music with that of jazz. Scholarship in the latter field has been both extensive and accurate. Alan Merriam in his introduction to A Bibliography of Jazz states:
It was in its role as dance music that jazz functioned almost entirely during the first thirty years of its recognizable existence, but in the I920's it suddenly emerged from semiobscurity and began to receive increasingly more attention in magazines, journals and newspapers as discussions broadened and controversy swelled. By the late 20's the first books and magazines devoted to jazz were appearing, and since that time spoken and written criticism of jazz has steadily increased (1954:ix).
Merriam's bibliography, going only through 1950, lists 3,324 entries. In addition, 113 jazz periodicals published around the world are noted. Unfortunately, the same state of affairs does not exist for country music. Although no comparable bibliographic work exists, it is obvious that our literature is comparable in neither quantity nor quality. Despite the lack of formal statements about the hillbilly field, the basic materials for research are available to the energetic student. The problems, however, are that we have no guide of any sort to the extant data, and, though the John Edwards Memorial Foundation promises to alleviate the problem, at present there is no central archive in which the available material is preserved.
Not only is the quantity of written material sparse, but its quality is uneven. This field, perhaps more than any comparable segment of popular culture, is marked by a lack of standards of scholarship and accuracy. Much of the available information lies in a variety of publications which are not directed to an academic audience. Though these publications are lacking in accuracy, they often furnish perceptive general impressions. Not only has the popular press felt no responsibility for accuracy in this field; the few academic publications are generally as superficial and inadequately researched. In a I948 review article, marking the beginning of the policy of reviewing folk music recordings in the JOURNAL OF AMERICAN FOLKLORE, Charles Seeger pointed out a general trend of musicians to move from folk to concert style (1948:216). A parallel trend from superficial to serious is evident in the publications surrounding the hillbilly field. Although our standards are still disgracefully low, we now have come to realize that better research is required. And popular writers are moving in the same direction. Likewise, through time another change is taking place: the body of literature in this field, once almost completely the result of popular journalists, is being added to increasingly by trained researchers. From the 1920's some academic attention has been paid to commercial recordings as documents to be used to supplement folksong scholarship; but attention to the commercial industry per se as a phenomenon of industrial society deserving of study by the folklorist is only now beginning. The earliest scholarly statements merely tried to call attention to this body of material as another source of traditional song, but they did not point out that this is a tradition which itself should be studied.
Popular writers, however, have been more concerned with the commercial industry as a curiosity, and thus have provided better documentation of its history and development. Although folksong scholars had been aware of commercially recorded hillbilly music as early as the I920's, Herbert Halpert was the first folklorist to show that there was an overlooked body of recorded folk music (1936). He was aware of both the importance of this material for studies of style of performance and difficulties in obtaining these discs. The general tenor of his article was as much a plea for field recording as for attention to commercial recordings. But four years later Alan Lomax focused more on the importance of the commercial tradition itself. After listening to some 3000 commercial recordings, he issued a mimeographed list of 350 discs that he felt were of special importance. In a short introduction to this selected discography, he lists reasons for paying attention to these recordings:
I have compiled this list ... in order that the interested musician or student of American society may explore this unknown body of Americana with readiness .... Some of the records are interesting for their complete authenticity of performance; some for their melodies; some because they include texts of important or representative songs; some because they represented typical contemporary deviations from rural singing and playing styles of fifty years ago.... (1940:1).
Lomax's point was amplified by Charles Seeger when he said that in addition to hand notation and private and semi-public sound recordings, traditional music had been preserved by the commercial pressings made by the record companies. He furthermore stated that in comparison with the private field recordings, the commercial industry used more elaborate recording equipment, made more recordings, and started earlier (I948:215-216).
Although D. K. Wilgus has consistently made extensive use of recorded materials in his own folksong scholarship, his comments on the unique problems involved in hillbilly research have been buried in his record reviews for the JOURNAL OF AMERICAN FOLKLORE since he assumed the duties of Record Review Editor in 1959, and in his record reviews in Kentucky Folklore Record from 1955 to I962. His only general statements on this subject are a short passage in Anglo-American Folksong Scholarship Since 1898 (1959:233) and his brief discussion of the contribution of the Rev. Andrew Jenkins as a major folk composer whose ballads entered tradition through commercial records (1964).
Even though there has been no general article on this subject by any folklorist, in recent years several case studies and discographical articles have been offered by folklorists. John Greenway's treatment of Jimmie Rodgers (1957) as a folksong catalyst is an early attempt to show the impact of a commercial artist on the traditional folksong repertoire. The equally interesting subject of Rodgers' impact on the later commercial tradition is less satisfactorily dealt with by Greenway (1962) in reviews during the years in which he served as record review editor for Western Folklore (July, 1960-October, 1962).
A much more thorough treatment of a recording act is offered by Archie Green's discussion of the Carter Family (I96Ic) in which he presents not only biographical information but a depth study of one song in their repertoire, "The Coal Miner's Blues." In his case study of "The Death of Mother Jones" (1960), Green's emphasis is on detailing the folk process of a topical ballad which probably began its traditional life through a phonograph record. And both this and the Carter Family ballad are included in a discographical article dealing with coal miners' songs (196Ia). This last article is important not only because it gives a nearly complete listing of recordings dealing with one vein of labor history, but because the data is prefaced by a careful essay showing the significance of this kind of material to the student hoping to gain insight into an occupational group. In two similar articles he gave discographies of American textile workers' songs (1961) and American labor union songs found on long playing records (i96ib). Even before Halpert's 1936 article, a few folksong scholars had made use of the commercial discs. But their precedent generally went unnoticed by folklorists. The first extensive use of hillbilly recordings by a folklorist is in Guy B. Johnson's John Henry (1929). Johnson stated:
The John Henry records are all, I believe, authentic folk versions, but in a sense they cease to be real folk songs when they are put on phonograph records. The folk setting is lost, and the normal mode of folk song diffusion is upset (1929:88). Despite his reservations, he is well aware that the phonograph record may "... give the ballad a new birth...." (1929:88), and his use of hillbilly records sets an admirable standard, for full discographical data as well as identification of the recording artists is given.
In at least one case Johnson attempted to locate the recording artists for clarification of a text (I929:I06). It is not surprising that Johnson pays careful attention to the hillbilly tradition, for in I926, he and Howard Odum had made extensive comments on the phonograph record in relation to Negro tradition (I926:I9ff). It is interesting, however, to note that in this earlier work, no discographical data are provided. In several cases, Odum and Johnson even refer to hillbilly material (I926: 46; 83), but likewise without documentation. In Louis W. Chappell's study of John Henry he also pays homage to the commercial tradition by providing a list of pertinent records (1933:95), but this is nothing more than a list of release numbers-these data are never incorporated into his study. Hillbilly records are used in many of the collections compiled and edited by John A. and Alan Lomax. In American Ballads and Folk Songs (1934), as well as Our Singing Country (I94I), discs are freely transcribed and identified. Folk Song: U. S. A. (1947), however, continues the tradition of using commercial recordings for sources but generally drops the discographical references. Alan Lomax continues the same approach in The Folk Songs of North America (1960).
Under the influence of the Lomaxes, Irene Therese Whitfield published an excellent collection of Louisiana French Folk Songs (1939) in which she included a discography of Louisiana French folksongs on commercial phonograph records, as well as a listing of similar material recorded for the Library of Congress. The only regional collector to use phonograph recordings extensively is Vance Randolph (1946-1950). Although his discographical references are not exhaustive, his documentation is generally accurate. Belden and Hudson, on the other hand, completely ignore the commercial tradition with the exception of their discussion of "The Wreck of the Ninety-Seven" (1952: 512-516). North Carolina provided most of the artists in the first twenty years of the commercial hillbilly tradition. For this reason, if for no other, the use of discs in annotations would have measurably increased the value of the collection.
While B. A. Botkin has made no statement about the commercial tradition, he has included transcriptions and indicated their sources for two records (1944: 890; Botkin and Harlow, 1953: 463). Likewise, Bertrand Harris Bronson has utilized the commercial tradition when it pertained to his studies of Child ballads (1959, 1962). Beyond these occasional employments of hillbilly recordings, our folksong literature has taken almost no account of this parallel tradition which, from time to time, touches, crosses, and recrosses the path of "traditional" folksong.
In contrast to the few academic publications on the subject, the popular press has shown some interest in the hillbilly industry from nearly its beginning. Although the writings are for the most part of uneven quality, this body of literature gives us the most nearly complete record of the tradition. Despite the fact that there is no book which surveys the field, several books on the subject are available. To date the best overall picture of the early days of the industry is Borden Deal's The Insolent Breed (1959). The book is a fictionalized account of a traditional fiddler who works his way from rural dances to radio. The book covers his life from his bachelor days through the emergence of his grandson as a rock-and-roll singer. Even though the novel is not presented as a factual account, it shows the emergence and changes brought about by records, radio, and live shows. Save for the fact that the central figure of the novel did not record, the book gives a good overall impression of the life of the typical country musician from the early industry through the fairly recent period.
A more serious attempt to chronicle the development of the industry is A History and Encyclopedia of Country, Western and Gospel Music (Gentry, 196I). This volume is valuable primarily because it reprints in one volume a number of articles that originally appeared in magazines from 1904 through 1958. While the coverage is far from exhaustive, many valuable articles are reprinted. In addition, Linnell Gentry gives short biographies for over three hundred musicians and comedians in the fields covered. Although the emphasis is on the modern musicians, a number of the older figures in these fields are also included. And finally, there is a brief discussion of some of the most important live country music shows that have been broadcast since 1924. Gentry is certainly broad in scope, but much more depth is needed. Long before this book, however, various attempts had been made to treat parts of the tradition in greater detail.
Shortly after Jimmie Rodgers' death in May of 1933, Rodgers' widow, Carrie, apparently with the help of a ghost writer, wrote a biography of her husband (1935). Although the life of the great recording artist was glorified in this account, most of the details of Rodgers' life and rise to stardom are presented. A similarly popular account of a tremendously important western swing musician is offered in Hubbin' It: The Life of Bob Wills (Shelton, 1938). The only autobiography of a commercial artist is the recently published The Yodelling Cowboy (Carter, 1961). Nova Scotia-born Wilf Carter, better known as Montana Slim, is fairly typical of a number of Canadian artists who became successful in the American hillbilly field.
A different aspect of the tradition is explored in Grand Ole Opry (McDaniel and Seligman, 1952). The book deals with the history and development of this extremely important weekly radio show, which is largely responsible for, among other things, making Nashville the major recording center of the United States. The work is a popular account of a phenomenon which certainly deserves more serious study.
Beginning with the 1960 edition [1959] Thurston Moore has been issuing The Country Music Who's Who, publishing subsequent editions in 1964 (Moore, 1963) and 1965 (Moore, 1964). While these annuals are primarily directed to the trade, they all contain valuable raw data as well as specific articles that are of interest to persons working in this field of research. Of especial interest, however, is the 1965 edition with its expanded coverage as well as a long section on the history of country music (Part 6:9-64). This treatment is spotty, but places an emphasis on radio that makes it especially valuable. The section is further enhanced by numerous rare photographs paralleling the history of the industry from the I920'S through the present time.
David Dachs in his analysis of the popular music industry devotes one chapter to country-western music (I964:225-237). While his historical facts are weak and we cannot always agree with his interpretations, he does try to make sense out of the changes that have come over the industry. Both his general familiarity with the entire popular music industry and his observations of recent changes in the country and western field make his comments important.
In addition to these few books the popular press has offered a great number of articles and accounts that deal in one way or another with country music. Eventually, bibliographies will have to be compiled from selected newspapers in order to provide first hand impressions of the industry in its various aspects and stages of development. While Gentry (196I) reprinted a number of popular articles, he consciously overlooked other articles known to him. The Reporter, for instance, contains two important articles by Eli Waldron, the first of which deals with the most important artist of the fifties-Hank Williams (Waldron, 1955). In the second article Waldron widens his horizons to deal very slightly with the history of the industry, but more importantly to talk of the impact of country-western music both in the United States and abroad (1955a). Both magazines and newspapers contain a rich store of information on country music. Although much may be of slight interest, we must still examine it all for the few hidden gems.
In recent years the so-called folk music revival has also produced a great amount of literature on various aspects of the commercial tradition. The only book of interest is The New Lost City Ramblers Song Book (Cohen and Seeger, 1964). Containing well over a hundred songs drawn from early recordings, the music, transcribed by Hally Wood, is generally taken from the Ramblers' recordings or performances. The real value of this publication, however, lies in the introductory essays by Mike Seeger and John Cohen. Seeger has published information drawn from his interview with the late and important record executive, Frank B. Walker (Cohen and Seeger, 1964: 26-29). In addition, the book reproduces a number of excellent photographs that add another dimension to the documentation of the industry.
A growing interest among city people in the older commercially recorded artists and styles gradually led up to the publication of the Ramblers' song book. Sing Out!, the oldest revival-oriented periodical, has over the years published numerous short articles and notes on various phases of the commercial tradition. The earliest entries are generally superficial, but in recent years a number of worthwhile articles have appeared. Mike Seeger wrote an early article on bluegrass music (I961 :10-I2) which outlined the development of this style, differentiated it from other styles, and showed its impact on the city audience. This article is superseded, however, by Ralph Rinzler's articles on Bill Monroe (1963:5-9) and bluegrass (1964). Earl Scruggs, another major force in bluegrass, is treated in a much less satisfactory fashion by Pete Welding (1962: 4-7).
Some of the first articles appearing in revival publications were extremely superficial and factually incorrect. Ed Badeaux' article on the Carter Family (1961) is typical of articles that often appeared in the revival press as interest in country music began to develop. In contrast, Ralph Rinzler treats the Carters with understanding and accuracy (g964a). One of the most important of the early radio and recording artists, Uncle Dave Macon, is treated in a stimulating article by Jon Pankake and Paul Nelson (1963), giving biographical information on this artist as well as some indication of his tremendous importance. During the early years of his recording career Macon was often accompanied by Sam and Kirk McGee, important artists in their own right. In a following article Pankake deals with the McGee Brothers and to some extent with their long time musical associate, Arthur Smith (1964). Though credit is not given, it seems that the information in the article is derived primarily from interview tapes which Mike Seeger made with all three of these musicians. One of the current artists influenced by Macon is Grandpa Jones, who is dealt with superficially but without factual error by Ed Badeaux (I963). Interviews are the basis of an article on Eck Robertson in which John Cohen tells something of the exciting and important career of this early fiddler (1964). In a general article, Cohen takes up the fascinating subject of the interchange between Negro and white musicians (I964). While the point he makes is well known, it is clearly stated and well documented with specific examples.
Although publications like Sing Out! and Hootenanny gradually came to publish articles on the white commercial tradition, the revival press had begun to take a serious interest in this subject several years earlier. In the valuable but short-lived periodical Caravan appeared a number of basic articles. This magazine began as a "fanzine" in I957 and not until Billy Faier took over the general editorship of the magazine in February-March, 1959, did significant articles in our field begin to appear. In an important review article, Archie Green points out the need ". . for ballad scholar and record collector to join hands" (I959: 13). To date, the best discussion on the relation of folk and hillbilly music is in Fred G. Hoeptner's two-part article which also serves as a general introductory article on the history of the commercial tradition (1959; I959a). Since the appearance of that article and partly as a result of the interest it generated, our knowledge of this subject has increased to the point that many of the hazy factual details could be clarified. The late Australian discophile, John Edwards, also began publishing in Caravan. His first contributions were a short biography and a discography of Buell Kazee (1959; 1959a). Much of this information was obtained through correspondence with Kazee.
In an excellent but brief ballad study of "Will the Weaver" (Laws Q9) Archie Green shows the tradition of this ballad to extend from an Old World broadside of I793 through three commercial records of the twenties and thirties (1959a). Joe Nicholas presents a sketchy biography of Uncle Dave Macon (1959), but a much more important contribution is his discography of the artist (I959a). And as the publication of Caravan was drawing to a close, the next to the last issue included a brief discographical article by John Edwards on rural drama records (1960). A number of other revival publications are beginning to contain important publications. Chris A. Strachwitz, for example, prints a good biography and discography of Mainer's Mountaineers (1964) in American Folk Music Occasional No. I. Gradually programs for festivals and other non-periodical literature are beginning to contain valuable contributions. Small folk music publications are springing up around the country. Most of these energetic projects are short-lived, but often they last long enough to generate a few worthwhile articles before expiring. This kind of publication is ephemeral enough to be overlooked generally by the libraries, but important enough to warrant examination by the folklorist interested in the commercial tradition. Enthusiastic young fans often find important musicians of earlier times and publish basic biographical information available nowhere else. Though the ephemeral folk music publication is not marked by studies of the music, it often contains valuable raw data.
The ephemeral publications of the record collectors, however, are more important sources. The earliest such periodical is Disc Collector, which began in 1951 under the leadership of Joseph C. Nicholas and Freeman Kitchens. Although the articles have been of uneven quality, a vast amount of discographical data has appeared in the pages of this mimeographed journal. While Disc Collector is the earliest periodical devoted to hillbilly music, many other similar publications have appeared since that time. Despite their short lives, these magazines all become essential tools for research. In all there are well over twenty such periodicals, emanating from the United States, England, Australia, Switzerland, and Holland. Certainly an exhaustive search will turn up many more. In addition, there is an equal number of fan journals not directed to the record collector, but rather to the country music fan. These publications have been much less concerned with accuracy, but they often provide valuable information about popular artists and are one of the best indications of changing values regarding country music. Midway between the popular fan magazines and the discophile publications are a host of fan club journals. Most of their articles are examples of fan-oriented hero worship, but communications from the artists, as well as interviews, discographical information, and occasional perceptive comments are also included.
But when one begins an exhaustive search for information on the subject of the commercial tradition, one will ultimately be led back to the vast amount of material published by and for the industry itself. Most of this information is purely raw data, such as ledger sheets of the recording companies, company catalogs, and promotional material. But in addition there has been a number of periodicals for the record and entertainment fields that contain press releases, interviews, and other kinds of source material that must be examined for an understanding of the field. Although the industry has sponsored no books in the field, Billboard has published two editions of The World of Country Music (1963; 1964). Both these issues contain vast amounts of information, but as is typical in the industry, historical treatments are incorrect in detail after detail. Nevertheless, the current trade publications, as well as the earlier ones, contain information that is perhaps preserved nowhere else. Tedious as it will be, ultimately these weekly or monthly publications must be carefully examined for all information pertaining to the history and development of country music. And then it will be necessary to begin examining vast quantities of industry data. The problems in this area are complex. In many cases these valuable data have been destroyed. In other cases, the industry executives are reluctant to allow this information to be examined for any of a number of reasons. But in the end, if we aspire to a full understanding of the commercial tradition, every available avenue must be explored.
Why has this area been so neglected? Certainly not because this is too obscure an area to deserve serious study, for today country-western music accounts for about ten percent of the single records released. This type of music is thus second only to the vast "popular" market in terms of records released. The problems plaguing country music are not new. From the earliest days of recordings of rural white music, it has been regarded as a part of the industry that makes money, but does not contribute to American culture. This early attitude undoubtedly reflected the feelings of the time, but in subsequent years the industry has done nothing to change this attitude. Perhaps no other area of popular culture is so lacking in self-respect. And the public image of country music certainly will not change radically until the self-image of the industry itself changes. For the most part, the executives, musicians, and promoters feel that they are dealing with a parasitic area of popular culture. Not even the first step has been taken to bring respect to this large segment of the music business. There is probably no equally large segment of the American economy that has existed for so long without attempting in some way to understand or explain itself. The reasons for such behavior are complex indeed, but to some extent are explicable in terms of the marginal light in which the country music business has viewed itself. Only those industries that feel they make some contribution to American life have felt it necessary to have their story explained. Area after area of popular culture has seen to it that popular histories are written, but country music has not even managed to encourage one good article!
This feeling of cultural uselessness has had its impact not only on the public image of hillbilly music and musicians, but more importantly from our point of view, on the scholarship surrounding the part of the popular music industry which has the strongest and most significant relationship to traditional folk music. The humorous costume in which the hillbilly has been disguised for nearly half a century has obscured his significance to both the general public and to the student of culture. So our task, in order to understand the dynamics of this industry, will be, first of all, to convince the industry that our interests are not business oriented, and secondly that there is some value in studying this complex and exciting area of American popular culture. The task will be tedious, but the rewards will be rich.
REFERENCES CITED:
BADEAUXE, D
I96I "The Carters of Rye Cove," Sing Out!, XI, No. 2, April-May, I3-I6. 1963 "The Wonderful World of Grandpa Jones," Sing Out!, XIII, No. 5, December-January, 19-21.
BILLBOARD
1963 The World of Country Music, Billboard, Sec. 2, November 2.
I964 The World of Country Music, Billboard, Sec. 2, November 14.
BOTKIN, B. A.
I944 A Treasury of American Folklore (New York).
BOTKIN, B. A. AND ALVIN F. HARLOW
1953 A Treasury of Railroad Folklore (New York).
BRONSONB, ERTRANHDA RRIS
1959 The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads, Vol. I (Princeton).
I962 The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads, Vol. II (Princeton).
CARTER, WILF
I96I The Yodelling Cowboy (Toronto).
CHAPPELL, Louis W.
1933 John Henry: A Folk-Lore Study (Jena).
COHEN, JOHN
I964 "Fiddlin'E ck Robertson,"S ing Out!, XIV, No. 2, April-May,5 5-59.
I965 "The Folk Music Interchange: Negro and White," Sing Out!, XIV, No. 6, January, 42-49.
COHEN, JOHN AND MIKE SEEGER
I964 The New Lost City Ramblers Song Book (New York).
DACHS, DAVID
1964 Anything Goes: The World of Popular Music (New York).
DEAL, BORDEN
1959 The Insolent Breed (New York).
EDWARDS, JOHN
1959 "Buell Kazee: A Biographical Note," Caravan, No. 17, June-July, 42-43.
I959a "Buell Kazee: A Discography of his Early Recorded Work," Caravan, No. I7, June- July, 44-45.
I960 "A Discography of Columbia Rural Drama Records," Caravan, No. I9, January, 36- 37; 4I.
GENTRY, LINNELL
I96I A History of Country, Western and Gospel Music (Nashville).
GREEN, ARCHIE
I959 "A Discographic Appraisal," Caravan, No. 15, February-March, 7-13.
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I960 "The Death of Mother Jones," Labor History, I, 68-80.
I96I "Born on Picket Lines, Textile Workers' Songs are Woven into Labor History," Textile Labor, XXII, No. 4, April, 3-5.
Ig6Ia "A Discography of American Coal Miners' Songs," Labor History, II, oI-115.
g96ib "A Discography (LP) of American Labor Union Songs," New York Folklore Quarterly, XVII, 187-193.
I96Ic "The Carter Family's 'Coal Miner's Blues,'" Southern Folklore Quarterly, XXV, 226- 237.
GREENWAY, JOHN
I962 "Folk Song Discography," Western Folklore, XXI, 7I-76.
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HALPERTH, ERBERT
I963 "Some Recorded American Folk Song," The American Music Lover, II, 196-200.
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I929 John Henry (Chapel Hill).
LOMAX, ALAN
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1960 The Folk Songs of North America (New York).
LOMAX, JOHN A. AND ALAN
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1941 Our Singing Country (New York).
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1952 The Grand Ole Opry (New York).
MERRIAM, ALAN
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NICHOLAS, JOE
1959 "The Grand-Daddy of American Country Music," Caravan, No. I8, August-September, 36.
I959a "Macon Discography," Caravan, No. I8, August-September, 38-43.
ODUM, HOWARD W. AND GUY B. JOHNSON
I926 Negro Workaday Songs (Chapel Hill).
PANKAKE, JON
1964 "Sam and Kirk McGee from Sunny Tennessee," Sing Out!, XIV, No. 5, November, 46-50.
PANKAKE, JON AND PAUL NELSON
I963 "Uncle Dave Macon-Country Music Immortal," Sing Out!, XIII, No. 3, Summer, 19-2I.
RANDOLPH, VANCE
I946-I950 Ozark Folksongs, 4 vols. (Columbia, Mo.).
RINZLER, RALPH
1963 "Bill Monroe-'The Daddy of Blue Grass Music,'" Sing Out!, XIII, No. I, February- March, 5-8.
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1935 My Husband Jimmie Rodgers (San Antonio)
SEEGER, CHARLES
I948 "Reviews," JOURNAL OF AMERICAN FOLKLORE, LXI, 215-218.
SEEGER, MIKE
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WALDRON, ELI
1955 "Country Music-I. The Death of Hank Williams," The Reporter, XII, No. 10, May I9, 35-37.
I955a "Country Music-II. The Squaya Dansu From Nashville," The Reporter, XII, No. 11, June 2, 39-42.
WELDING, PETE
I962 "Earl Scruggs-and the Sound of Bluegrass," Sing Out!, XII, No. 2, April-May, 4-7.
WHITFIELD, IRENE THERESE
1939 Louisiana French Folk Songs (Baton Rouge).
WILGUS, D. K.
I959 Anglo-American Folksong Scholarship Since i898 (New Brunswick, N. J.).
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Rationalistic Approach" in A Good Tale and a Bonnie Tune, Publications of the
Texas Folklore Society, XXXII (Dallas), 227-237.