"Ballad Poetry," Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia, 1900
by Francis J. Child
Journal of Folklore Research, Vol. 31, No. 1/3, Triple Issue: Ballad Redux (Jan. - Dec., 1994), pp. 214-222
[This article (essay) by Child was first published in 1874. It was emmended in later additons and The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, by F. J. Child, Boston, 1882-92, 8 parts, and one to follow, which will contain a full bibliography was added. Child died in 1896. This article, a reprint, was published in numerous times, this is from the 1900 edition.]
Francis J. Child, "Ballad Poetry," Johnsons Universal Cyclopaedia, 1900
Ballad Poetry: The word ballad in English signifies a narrative song, a short tale in lyric verse, which sense it has come to have, probably through the English, in some other languages. It means, by derivation, a dance-song, but though dancing was formerly, and in some places still is, performed to song instead of instrumental music, the application of the word in English is quite accidental. The popular ballad, for which our language has no unequivocal name, is a distinct and very important species of poetry. Its historical and natural place is anterior to the appearance of the poetry of art, to which it has formed a step, and by which it has been regularly displaced, and, in some cases, all but extinguished.
Whenever a people in the course of its development reaches a certain intellectual and moral stage, it will feel an impulse to express itself, and the form of expression to which it is first impelled is, as is well known, not prose, but verse, and in fact narrative verse. The condition of society in which a truly national or popular poetry appears explains the character of such poetry. It is a condition in which the people are not divided by political organization and book-culture in to markedly distinct classes, in which consequently there is such community of ideas and feelings that the whole people form an individual. Such poetry, accordingly, while it is in its essence an expression of our common human nature, and so of universal and indestructible interest, will in each case be differenced by circumstances and idiosyncrasy.
On the other hand, it will always be an expression of the mind and heart of the people as an individual, and never of the personality of individual men. The fundamental characteristic of popular ballads is therefore the absence of subjectivity and of self-consciousness. Though they do not "write themselves," as William Grimm has said, though a man and not a people has composed them, still the author counts for nothing, and it is not by mere accident, but with the best reason, that they have come down to us anonymous. Hence, too, they are extremely difficult to imitate by the highly civilized modern man, and most of the attempts to reproduce this kind of poetry have been ridiculous failures.
The primitive ballad, then, is popular, not in the sense of something arising from and suited to the lower orders of a people. As yet, no sharp distinction of high and low exists, in respect to knowledge, desires, and tastes. An increased civilization, and especially the introduction of book-culture, gradually gives rise to such a division; the poetry of art appears; the popular poetry is no longer relished by a portion of the people, and is abandoned to an uncultivated or not over-cultivated class- a constantly diminishing number.
But whatever maybe the estimation in which it may be held by particular classes or at particular epochs, it can not lose its value. Being founded on what is permanent and universal in the heart of man, and now by printing put beyond the danger of perishing, it will survive the fluctuations of taste, and may from time to time serve, as it notoriously did in England and Germany a hundred years a go, to recall a literature from false and artificial courses to nature and truth.
Of the European nations the Spaniards and those of Scandinavian-German stock have best preserved their early popular poetry. We have early notices of the poetry of the Germans. Their ballads, mythical or historical, are several times spoken of by Tacitus, who says that these were their only annals. The earth-born Tuisco and his son Mannus were celebrated in the one, and the hero Arminius in the other. The historian of the Goths, Jornandes, writing in the sixth century, says that these people were accustomed to sing the exploits of their fathers to the harp, and seems to have taken not a little of his history from such songs. The like is true of Paulus Diaconus, the Lombard historian, who wrote in the eight century, and mentions songs about Alboin (who died in 563) as existing among all the nations of German speech. Charlemagne had the old traditional songs of his people collected and committed to writing, and even made them one of the subjects of school instruction. Side by side with heroic ballads, social, convivial, and funeral songs (which may, to be sure, have been pretty much the same thing) seem to have been in use from the earliest recorded times. To all this popular poetry, by reason of its heathen derivation and character, the Christian clergy opposed themselves with the most determined hostility.
Not succeeding in extirpating it by the use of the spiritual and legal means at their command, the German churchmen of the ninth century conceived the idea of crowding it out by substituting poetry of a Christian subject and tone-an expedient which has been tried more than once since then. Though popular song lived on in obscure places, the foreground of history is filled for 600 years with religious and courtly poetry, and with the chivalrous and native epic. Nothing is left of the old heroic songs but a fragment of the Hildebrandslied, from the eighth century (best known in a modernized form of the fifteenth century); and of the Christianized song we have also but a single specimen, the Ludwigslied, of the year 1881. The former is in the ancient alliterative meter, the latter in the then newly introduced rhymed stanza. During the fifteenth and the early part of the sixteenth century a second growth of the genuine popular song appears, some of it springing, doubtless, out of shoots from the old stock which had lived through this long interval, some of it a fresh product of the age.
These ballads were popular in the large and strict sense; that is, they were the creation and the manifestation of the whole people, great and humble, who were still one in all essentials, having the same belief, the same ignorance, and the same tastes, and living in much closer relations than now. The diffusion of knowledge and the stimulation of thought through the art of printing, the religious and intellectual consequences of the Reformation, the intrusion of cold reflection into a world of sense and fancy, broke up the national unity. The educated classes took a direction of their own, and left what had been a common treasure to the people in the lower sense, the ignorant or unschooled mass. German ballads have been collected in considerable numbers. The sources have been "flying leaves," manuscripts, printed song-books (mostly of the sixteenth century), and oral tradition. In interest they are decidedly inferior to the Scandinavian and English.
Christianity and foreign culture, which in different ways have been equally destructive in their effects upon ancient national poetry, were introduced into the Scandinavian countries much later than into Germany and England. In the Scandinavian countries, too, the peasantry long maintained much higher position. They were not an oppressed and ignorant class, but free men, who shared fully in the indigenous culture, and so were well fitted to keep and transmit their poetical heritage. While, therefore, the heroic ballads of Germany and England have been lost- those of England utterly, those of Germany being preserved only in epic conglomerates like the Nibelungenlied- and while the mythical cycle in both countries is but feebly, if at all, represented, Scandinavia has kept a great deal of both. The story of Thor's Hammer forms the subject of a ballad still known in all the Scandinavian countries; a volume of ballads concerning Sigurd has been gathered from tradition in the Faroe isles within this century, and several ballads of this cycle and of that of Dietrich of Bern are found in Danish manuscript ballad-books. Svend Grundtvig, the editor of the still unfinished but truly magnificent collection of the old Danish ballads, has arranged them in four classes: first, the Heroic; second, the Trylleviser, or ballads of giants, dwarfs, nixes, elves, mountain-spirits, enchantment, spells, and ghosts; third, the Historic; and fourth, ballads of Chivalry. The historic ballads (intending their original, not their actual, form) mostly fall within the period from 1150 to 1300; the chivalrous are later, and the two other classes belong to a still earlier term, which may extend over the first half of the twelfth century, and into, or perhaps through, the eleventh-that is, to the epoch of the introduction of Christianity.
Ballads are best preserved by oral tradition in Norway and the Faroe isles, but not at all, there, in old manuscripts; Sweden has a few manuscripts, and Denmark a great number, written mostly by noble ladies living on their estates, and giving the ballads as they were sung three or four hundred years ago, as well in the lord's castle as in the peasant's hut. The Danish ballads were collected in a printed form earlier than any others except the Spanish. Vedel published a hundred in 1591; another collection, called Tragica, or old Danish historic love-ballads, appeared at Copenhagen in 1657; and in 1695 Syv republished Vedel's ballads, with the addition of another hundred.
The English have preserved but a moderate number of very early ballads, and the date of many of these it is impossible to fix. There are s ome narrative poems in Anglo-Saxon w hich, without stretch of language, might be called ballads. The Norman Conquest, and the predominance of the French language for more than two hundred years, had of course momentous literary consequences, but there is no reason why the production of the native ballad should have stopped. The story of the Saxon outlaw Hereward, which begins with the second year after the Conquest, and has been handed down to us in Latin prose of the twelfth century, is full of such adventures as form the themes of ballads, and very likely was made up from popular songs. Such ballads, if they existed, are lost, but ballads concerning outlaws are among the earliest and best ones of the English. In place of Hereward of the Conqueror's time, and Fulk Fitz-Warin of John's time (whose history was also extremely popular), we have Robin Hood of uncertain time. Songs of Robin Hood and of Randolph, Earl of Chester (probably the third earl, who died in 1232), we know, from Piers Ploughman, were current among the lower orders at the middle of the fourteenth century, and one Robin Hood ballad exists in a manuscript which may be as old as the first quarter of the next century. Another occurs in a manuscript dated at about 1500, others in the Percy manuscript.
The Little Gest of Robin Hood, which is a miniature epic made up of half a dozen ballads, was printed by Wynken de Worde, "probably," says Ritson, "in 1489." We may reasonably place the origin of the Robin Hood ballads as early as the thirteenth century. To the thirteenth century may belong Hugh of Lincoln, which is founded on an incident that occurred in 1255. An Anglo-Norman ballad on the same subject twice refers to a King Henry, and is therefore put within the reign of Henry III., which ended 1276. After this there are only one or two ballads with dates till we come to the Battle of Otterbourn, 1388, from which time we have a succession of ballads f ounded on ascertained events, down to the middle of the eighteenth century. Ballads like those of Grundtvig's second class exist in a small number; one of them in a manuscript of the middle of the fifteenth century. The little that we have of ballads of the Arthur cycle, and many of the best of all kinds, we owe to the Percy manuscript, written just before 1650. A few ballads besides those named have been gleaned from manuscripts and early prints, but a large part of our whole stock has been recovered within the last 130 years from the oral tradition of Scotland. The first impulse to the collecting of this poetry was given by the publication of Percy's Reliques in 1765. The Reliques inspired Burger and Herder, through whom, and especially through Herder's Volkslieder (1778-79), that interest in the literature of the people was awakened in Germany which has spread over the whole of Europe, and has led to the collecting and study of the traditional songs and tales of all the European, and some of the Asiatic, African, and American races.
The Spanish alone of the Latin nations can boast a ballad poetry of great compass and antiquity. Following the law of analogy where documents are wanting, the origin of these ballads would be put between the years 1000 and 1200, the period when the Spanish nationality and language had been developed to that degree w hich invariably incites and leads to expression in epic song. Some sort of popular poetry about the Cid (whose time is 1040-99) is known to have been sung as early as 1147; the poem of the Cid itself is placed about 1200. During the century that follows we find occasional mention of ballad-singers,but no ballads. As in Germany, the popular poetry, after the first bloom of the national genius, was supplanted by art-poetry, among the higher classes, and it passed out of notice for two or three hundred years. A reaction set in the sixteenth century. This was the glorious period of Spanish history, and the returnt o the national poetry was a natural consequence of the powerful stirring of the national mind. Omitting "flying leaves" or broadsides, and a few ballads in the Cancioner Goeneral of 1511, the earliest collection of Spanish ballads is an undated Cancionero de Romances printed at Antwerp about 1546; and this, it must be observed, is the first ballad-book printed in any language, and was gathered in part from the memory of the people. Other similar collections followed, from which was made in 1600 the great Romancer Goeneral. To ward the end of the seventeenth century the national ballads declined in favor, with a decline of national spirit, but since the beginning of the present century th ey have been restored to a high estimation at home, and have gained the admiration of the world. The oldest ballads are those which relate to the history and traditions of Spain, and recount the exploits of Bernardo del Carpio, Fernan Gonzalez, the Seven Lords of Lara, and the Cid. Then comes a variety of romantic and chivalrous ballads, and then ballads of the Carlovingian cycle. These oldest and most characteristic of the Spanish ballads have been excellently edited by Wolf and Hofmann, and the entire body of this literature, amounting to more than 1,900 pieces, is included in the Romancer Goeneral, edited by Duran in 1849-51. The collections of ballads in the other Latin languages will be found below.
The ballads of other European nations are scarcely less interesting than those which have been noticed, and those of races which possess little or no other literature are peculiarly instructive, by reason of the light which they throw on the history of national poetry, for instance, th e songs of the Slavic races. The Slavic songs as a class are distinguished from the
Teutonic by the absence of the sentiment of romantic love and of chivalrous heroism. In their form, too, they are much less dramatic, and even the division of epic from lyric songs is not easy. Many songs begin with a few narrative verses, and then become entirely lyric, and the narrative part is almost always descriptive. The Servians- especially those of Turkish
Servia, Bosnia, and Montenegro, who have not been much affected by civilization- afford a capital example of a race that has not outlived the ballad era. Vuk has collected many hundreds of their songs, one-third of them epic and every one of them from the mouths of the people. A few of these are, in their actual form, as old as the fifteenth century, some belong to a remoter time, and indeed many retain marks of an ante-Christian origin. So far the Servians are like the German nations; the distinctionis that the fountain of popular poetry still flows, and that heroic poems have been produced among the Servians in this century which are essentially similar to the older ones, and not at all inferior. We find the national poetry there in a condition closely resembling that in which it was a mong the races of Northern and Eastern Europe many hundred years ago. New songs appear with new occasions, but do not supersede the ancient ones. The heroic ballads are chanted at taverns,
in the public squares, in the halls of chiefs, to the accompaniment of a simple instrument. Sometimes they are only recited, and in this way are taught by the old to the young. All classes know them: the peasant, the merchant, the hayduk (the klepht of the modern Greek, a sort of Robin Hood), as well as the professional bard. No class scorns to sing them-not even the clergy or the chiefs.
One or two general remarks are required to prevent misconceptions and to supply omissions. From what has been said, it may be seen or inferred that the popular ballad is not originally the product or the property of the lower orders of the people. Nothing, in fact, is more obvious than that many of the ballads of the now most refined nations had their origin in that class whose acts and fortunes they depict- the upper class- though the growth of civilization has driven them from the memory of the highly polished and instructed, and has left them as an exclusive possession to the uneducated. The genuine popular ballad had its rise in a time when the distinctions since brought about by education and other circumstances had practically no existence. The vulgar ballads of our day, the "broadsides" which were printed in such huge numbers in England and elsewhere in the sixteenth century or later, belong to a different genus; they are products of a low kind of art, and most of them are, from a literary point of view, thoroughly despicable and worthless.
Next it must be observed that ballads which have been handed down by long-repeated tradition have always departed considerably from their original form. If the transmission has been purely through the mouths of unlearned people, there is less probability of willful change, but once in the hands of professional singers there is no amount of change which they may not undergo. Last of all comes the modern editor, whose so-called improvements are more to be feared than the mischances of a thousand years. A very old ballad will often be found to have resolved itself in the course of what may be called its propagation into several distinct shapes, and each of these again to have received distinct modifications.
When the fashion of verse has altered, we shall find a change of form as great as that in the Hildebrandslied, from alteration without stanza to stanza with rhyme. In all cases the language drifts insensibly from ancient forms, though not at the same rate with the language of every-day life. The professional ballad-singer or minstrel, whose sole object is to please the audience before him, will alter, omit, or add without scruple, and nothing is more common than to find different ballads blended together.
There remains the very curious question of the origin of the resemblances which are found in the ballads of different nations, the recurrence of the same incidents or even of the same story, among races distinct in blood and history, and geographically far separated. The Scottish ballad of May Colvin, for instance-the German Ulinger-is also found in Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Icelandic, Dutch, Low German, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, Polish, Servian, Bohemian, Wendish, Magyar, and there are traces of it in other languages. Some have thought that to explain this phenomenon we must go back almost to the cradle of mankind, to a primeval common ancestry of all or most of the nations among whom it appears. But so stupendous an hypothesis is scarcely necessary.
The incidents of many ballads are such as might occur anywhere and at anytime; and with regard to agreements that can not be explained in this way we have only to remember that tales and songs were the chief social amusement of all classes of people in all the nations of Europe during the Middle Ages, and that new stories would be eagerly sought for by those whose
business it was to furnish this amusement, and be rapidly spread among the fraternity. A great effect was undoubtedly produced by the crusades, which both brought the chief European nations into closer intercourse and made them acquainted with the East, thus facilitating the interchange of stories and greatly enlarging the stock.
Some of the more important collections of popular ballads are:
English.-
Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, by Thomas Percy, 1st ed. 1765, 4th improved ed. London, 1794, and often since then;
Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs, by David Herd, 2d ed. 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1776;
Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, by Sir Walter Scott, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1802-03, and often since then;
Popular Ballads and Songs, by Robert Jamieson, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1806;
Ancient Scottish Ballads, by George R. Kinloch, Edinburgh,1 827;
Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern, by William Motherwell, Glasgow, 1827;
Ancient Ballads and Songs of the North of Scotland, by Peter Buchan, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1828;
The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, by F. J. Child, Boston, 1882-92, 8 parts, and one to follow, which will contain a full bibliography.
Scandinavian.-
Danmarks Gamle Folkeviser (The Ancient Ballads of Denmark), by Svend Grundtvig, 5 vols., the last half of the 5th, by Axel Olrik, unfinished, Copenhagen, 1853-90;
Jyske Folkeviser, in Jyske Folkeminder, by E. T. Kristensen, vols. i., ii., x., Copenhagen, 1871-89;
Ancient Danish Ballads, translated from the originals by R. C. Alex. Prior, 3 vols., London, 1860; Norske Folkeviser (Norwegian Ballads), by M. B. Landstad, Christiania, 1853;
Gamle Norske Folkeviser (Ancient Norwegian Ballads), by Sophus Bugge, Christiania, 1858;
Svenska Folkvisor (Swedish Ballads), by Geijer and Afzelius, 3 vols., Stockholm, 1814-16, improved ed. by Bergstrom and Hoijer, 3 vols., Stockholm, 1880;
Svenska Fornsanger, by A. I. Arwidsson, 3 vols., Stockholm, 1834-42;
Faeroiske Kvaeder (Ballads of the Faroe Isles), by V. U. Hammershaimb, Copenhagen, 1851-55;
Faerosk Anthologi, by the same, Copenhagen, 1886, 1891;
Islenzk Fornkvaei, by Grundtvig and Sigurasson, Copenhagen, 1854-85.
High German.-
Des Knaben Wunderhorn, Arnim and Brentano, 3 vols., Heidelberg, 1806-08, 4 vols., Berlin, 1853-54;
Alte teutsche Volksliedeirn der Mundart des Kuhlandchens, J. G. Meinert, Vienna and Hamburg, 1817;
Oesterreichische Volksliede, Zriska and Schottky, Pesth, 1819;
Die Volksliededrer Deutschen, F. K. von Erlach, 5 vols., Mannheim, 1834-36;
Deutsche Volkslieder, A. Kretzschmer and A. W. v. Zuccalmaglio, 2 vols., Berlin, 1840;
Schlesische Volkslieder, Hroffmann von Fallersleban and Richter, Leipzig, 1842;
Alteh och-und niederdeutsche Volkslieder, L. Uhland, 2 vols., Stuttgart,1 844-45;
Die deutschen Volkslieder, K. Simrock, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1851;
Deutsche Volkslieder, F. L. Mittler, Marburg and Leipzig, 1855;
Frdnkische Volkslieder, F. M. von Ditfurth, 2 parts, Leipzig, 1855;
Schwibische Volkslieder, E. Meier, Berlin, 1855;
Weltliche u geistliche Volkslieder, H. Prohle, A schersleben, 1855;
Deutscher Liederhort, L. Erk, Berlin, 1856;
Die historischen Volksliededrer, Deutschen R., von Liliencron, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1865-69;
Altdeutsches Liederbuch, F. M. Bohme, Leipzig, 1877;
Westfalische Volkslieder, A. Reifferscheid, Heilbronn, 1879.
Low German, Netherlandish.-
Uhland, as above; Oude Vlaemsch Leiederen, J. F. Willems, Ghent, 1848;
Niederlindsche Volkslieder, Hoffmann von Fallersleben, 2 d ed. Hanover, 1856;
Chants Populaires des Flamands de France, E . de Coussemaker, Ghent, 1856;
Oudeen nieuwe Liedjes, F. A. Snellaert, 2 ded. Ghent, 1864;
Chants Populaireas Flamands, A. Lootens and J. M. E. Feys, Bruges, 1879.
Spanish and Portuguese.-
Romancero General ( vols. x. and xvi. of Biblioteca de autores Espanoles), Agustin Duran, Madrid, 1849, 1851;
PrimaverayF lor de Romances, F. J. Wolf and C. Hoffman, 2 vols., Berlin, 1856;
RomanzenA sturiensu, . s. w., Jose Amador de los Rios, in Jahrbuchfi r romanischeu- . englische Literatur,i ii. 268, 1861; Colecciond e los viejos romanceqs ue se cantanp or los Asturianos, J. M. Pidal, Madrid, 1885;
Cansonsd e la Terra, Cantspopulars Catalans, F. Pelay Briz, 5 vols. (i, y Candi Candi, ii, y J. Salto), Barcelona, 1866-75; Romancerill Co atalan, M. Mily Fontanals, B arcelona, 1882; R omanceiroA, lmeida- Garrett, 3 vols., Lisbon, 1863; Th. Braga,C ancioneir Po opular, Coimbra, 1 867, Romanceiro Geral, Coimbra, 1867,
Cantos P opulares de Archipelago Aforiano,P orto, 1869;
Romanceiro Portuguez, V. E. Hardung, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1877;
Romanceirdoe Archipelagdoa Madeira,A . Rodriguesd e Azevedo, F unchal, 1880;
Cantospop. po B razil, S . Romoro,2 vols., Lisbon, 1883.
Italian.-
Cantipopolari Toscani, Corsi, Illirici, G reciN, . Tommaso, 4 vols., Venice, 1841- 42, 2d ed. of vol. i., 1848;
Cantipop. inediti Umbri, etc., 0. Marcoaldi, Genoa, 1856; Saggio di cantip op. VeronesiE, . S. Righi, Verona, 1863; Volksliedearu s Venetieng, esammelvt on G.
Widtere, d. A. Wolf, Vienna, 1864; Canzonipop.C omascheG, . B. Bolza, Vienna Academy,
1867; Cantipop. Veneziani,G . Bernoni, Venice, 1872; Canti e Raccontid elPopoloI taliano,
D. Comparetti and A. d'Ancona, Turin and Florence, vols. i.-v., viii., ix., 1870-91;Archivio
per lo Studiod elleT radizionipop.P, itre and Imbriani,i .-xi., 1882-92; Cantip op. Umbri,G .
Mazzatinti, Bologna, 1883; Canti pop. del Piemonte, C. Nigra, Turin, 1888; Canti pop.
Siciliani, G. Pitre, 2d. ed. 2 vols., Palermo, 1891.
French.-
Instructionsr elativesa ux Poesieps opulaireds e la FranceJ, .J . Ampere, Paris, 1853;
Etudes ur lapoesiepopulaireen Normandie, Eug. de Beaurepaire, Avranches, 1856; Chansons
pop. des P rovinces d e France Jules F leury), P aris, 1860; Chantsp opulairesd upaysc astraisA, .
Combes, Castres,1 862; Noelse t Chantspopd. e la Franche-Comte, M. Buchon, Salins, 1863;
Chantsp op. de la Provence,D amase Arbaud, 2 vols., Aix, 1862-64;
Romancerod e Champagne, P. Tarb6,5 vols., Reims, 1863-64; Chantsp op. recueillids ansl epays messin,C ompte
de Puymaigre,M etz, 1865, 2d ed. 2 vols., 1881; Chantse t chansonps op. desp rovincesd e
l'ouestP, oitou,e tc.,J . Bujeaud,2 vols., Niort, 1866; Chansonps op. du Canada,E . Gagnon,
Quebec, 2d ed. 1880; Chantsp op. du LanguedocA, . Montel et L. Lambert, Paris, 1880;
Chantspopd. u Velaye t duF orez( Victor Smith), in Romania,P aris 1872-81; Poesiespopd. e la
Gascogne,JF. . Blade, 3 vols., Paris, 1881-82; Chansonspopd.e l Ain, G. Guillon, Paris, 1883;
Chansonps op. d'Ille-et-Vilaine,L . Decombe, Rennes, 1884; Chansonse t Balladesp op. du
Valois,G erard de Nerval, Paris, 1885; VieuxC hantsp op. recueillise n QuercyJ, . Daymard,
Cahors, 1889; Chantspopd. u Bas-QuercyE, . Soleville,P aris, 1889; RecueildeC hansonspop.,
6 vols., E. Rolland, Paris, 1883-90; Traditionse, tc.,d esArdennesA, . Meyrac, Charleville,
1890.
Roumanian.-
Balade, B. Alexandri, 2 vols., Jassy, 1853-54, and Poesif Populare ale Romdnilor, Bucharest, 1866; Balladese t Chantspopd. el a Roumanier, ecueilliest traduitspar V Alexandri,P aris, 1855; RoumanA nthologyN, ational Balladso f Moldavia, etc., H. Stanley,
Hertford, 1856; PoesiaP opuralaB, alade,M arienescu,P esth, 1859; Baladepopuralr eo mdne, M. Pompiliu, Jassy, 1870.
Romaic.-
Chants populairesd e la Grecem oderneC, . Fauriel,2 vols., Paris, 1824-25; the
same in German, by W. Miiller, Leipzig, 1825; CantipopolarTi oscani,C orsi,I llirici, Greci,
N. Tommaso, 4 vols., Venice, 1841-42; Neugriechische Volks-u . FreiheitsliederD, . H.
Sanders,L eipzig, 1842; Das Volkslebedne r N eugriechene, tc., D. H. Sanders,M annheim,
1844; Tpayou8xa eOvtKca 2 parts,A . Manousos, Corcyra,1 850; Chantsd uP euplee n Grece,
Compte de Marcellus,2 vols., Paris, 1851; AtoCtaa 81rotKc&'f;a^ 'EXXaSdo(;P opular
Songs of Greece), Spyr.Z ampelios,C orcyra,1 852; CarminapopulariGa reciar ecentiorisA, .
Passow, Leipzig, 1860; Anthologien eugriechischeVro lksliederT, h. Kind, Leipzig, 1861;
LAXXoynf TCTvK acaT x lv Hrmtpov &rtioOtKcava oaduitov, G. Chr. Chasiotes,A thens,
1866; NeugriechischVe olksgesangJe., M. Firmenich-Richartz,2 parts, Berlin, 1840, 1867;
ArltonTil 'AvOoXoyia, M. S. Lelekos, Athens, 1868; T& KwxpuaKa, 3d vol. A. A.
Sakellarios,A thens, 1868; Ne£oeXXKjvtK'A vwaicEKa, Athens, 1871-81; Recueild e chan-
sonspopulaireGs recquesE, . Legrand,P aris, 1874; KretasV olksliedeAr,. JeannarakiL, eipzig,
1876; Griechische Mdrchen, Sagen, und Volkslieder, A. Schmidt, Leipzig, 1877;
xDXXoyn 86ar¶tdicu6o0ovv T;v 'Hreipov, P. Arabantinos, Athens, 1880;
TpayoVi&uTaO 'OXiiro)ouA, . K. Oikonomides,A thens, 1881;A EXTIovT zr; oaTopulKc
Kai £0v3Xoytltcf; ratpia Ti; 'EAXdsoq, Athens, 1883 ff.; K. N. Kanellakes, XtaKa
'AvdXaita, Athens, 1890; Zcoypaoeio; 'Aycv, vol. i., Constantinople, 1891.
Russian.-
Bylinas, Popular Epics, Heroic Ballads: the collectionso f Kirsha Danilof and
KalaidovitchM, oscow, 1818, 3d ed. 1878; of P. N. Rybnikof,v ols. i., ii., Moscow, 1861-62,
vol. iii. Petrozavodsk,1 863, vol. iv., St. Petersburg,1 867; of P. V. Kiryeevskye, d. Bezsonof,
10 parts,2 d ed., Moscow, 1868-75; ofA. F. Hilferding,S t. Petersburg1, 873; Untersuchungen
Uberd ie Volksepikd er GrossrussenW, . Wollner, Leipzig, 1879; The Epic Songso f Russia,
Isabel Florence Hapgood, New York, 1886. Piesni russkagon aroda( Songs of the Russian
People), 5 vols., J. P. Sakharof, St. Petersburg, 1838-39, and his Skazaniya r. n., 3d ed. vol.
i., St. Petersburg1, 841;K alyekiPerekhozh(iWe anderingP salm-singers)2, vols., P. Bezsonof,
Moscow, 1861-62; Russkiyan arodnyyapiesniP, . V. Shein, Moscow, 1870.
SouthR ussian( LittleR ussian,R uthenian,W hiteR ussian).-Piesni ludur uskiegow Galicyi,
Z. Pauli, Lemberg, 1839-40; Piosnkiw iesniaczez nadNiemnai Dzwiny, J. Czeczot, Wilna,
1844, 1846; Sbornik ukrainskikhp iesen, M. A. Maksimovic, Kiev, 1849; Narodnyya
yuzhnorusskiypa iesni, A. Metlinsky, Kiev, 1854; Bielorusskiypai esni, P. A. Bezsonof,
Moscow, 1871;B ielorusskiynaa rodnyyapiesnPi,. V. Shein, St. Petersburg1, 874; Tchumatzkiya
narodnyyap iesni, I. Ya. Rudtchenko, Kiev, 1874; "Trudy"o f the Russian Geographical
Society, southwest division, vol. v., St. Petersburg,1 874; Istoritcheskiyapiesnmi alorusskago
naroda, V. L. Antonovitch and M. Dragomanof, vols. i. and ii. 1, Kiev, 1874-75; Narodnyya
piesni galitzkoi i ugarskoRi usi, J. F. Golovatsky, 4 vols., Moscow, 1879. See also Polish below.
South Slavic (Servian, Croat, Illyrian, Slovenian).-
Narodne srpskep jesme (Songs of the Servian People), Vuk St. Karadzic.3 d ed. 5 vols., Vienna, 1841-65;
Volksliededrer Serben, Talvj (Mrs. Robinson), 2d ed. 2 vols., Leipzig, 1853;
Die Gesange der Serben, S . Kapper, 2 parts, Leipzig, 1852; Poesiesp op. Serbes, A. Dozon, Paris, 1859;
Pievaniya tzernogorskai hertzegovatchkaS, . Milutinovic, Vienna, 1833, Leipzig, 1837;
Srpsken arodnep jesme iz Bozne i Hertzegovine, B. Petranovic, Belgrad, 1867;
Srpsken arodnep jesme,K . X. Ristic, Belgrad, 1873;
Pesmes: dodatkomn arodnihpesamahpukhaa rvatskogaI,. Kukuljevic, Agram, 1847;
Narodne pjesme (Croat, Dalmatian, Bosnian, Servian), L. Zupan, Agram, 1848;
Narodnepjesmiez dala Matica Dalmatinska, Zara, 1865;
Narodnepjesme, V. Bogisic, Belgrad, 1878;
Jackei li narodnepesmpe uka hrvatskoga, F. Kurelac, Agram, 1871;
Juzno-slovejenske narodnepopievke, Chansons nationales des Slaves du Sud, F . Kuhac, 4 vols., Agram, 1878-81;
Narodne pesni ilirske (Styria, Carinthia, West Hungary), Stanko Vraz (= Jacob Fras),
Agram, 1839; Volksliedearu s Krain, ubersetztv on A. Griin (Count Auersperg), Leipzig,
1850; Cvetjcs lovenskegan aroda, A. Janeiic, Klagenfurt, 1852; Narodnep esmi koroskih
slovencev( Carinthian),J . Scheinigg, Laibach, 1889.
Bulgarian.-
BolgarskiyapiesnPi,. Bezsonof,M oscow, 1855;B ulgarskni arodnipiesnDi, . and
K. Miladinof,A gram, 1861, 2d ed., Sophia 1891; Chansonspopb.u lgareisn editesA, . Dozon,
Paris, 1875; Sbornikz apadno-bolgarskikphi esen, V. Katchanovski,S t. Petersburg, 1882;
Sbornik of the Bulgarian Ministry of Public Instruction, Sophia, 1889-91, vols. ii., iii., v.
Polish.-Piesnipolskiei ruskielu dug alicyjskieg(oP olish and Russianp epole in Galicia),W .
z Oleska, Lemberg, 1833; Piesni ludub ialo-chrobatdwm, azurdw,i rusi z nad Bugu (White
Chrobatians, Massovians, and Russians on the Bug), K. W. Wojcicki, Warsaw, 1836;
Piosnkiw iesniaczez nadNiemna,J . Czeczot, Wilna, 1837; Piesnil udupolskiegwo Galicyi,Z .
Pauli, Lemberg, 1838; Piosnkil uduw ielkopolskiegJo., J . Lipinski, Posen, 1842; Piesni ludu
podhalan,L . Zeiszner,W arsaw, 1845; Piesnil udupolskiegoO, skarK olberg,W arsaw, 1859,
and in many of twenty subsequent volumes of his Lud, 1867-88, as also in his Mazowsze, 4
vols., Cracow, 1885-88, and his Pokucie4, vols., Cracow, 1882-89; Piesni ludupolskiegwo
G6rnym Szlzsku (Silesia), J. Roger, Wrocldw, 1863; Lud, Piesni, etc., K. Kozlowski,
Warsaw,1 869; 0. MazurachW, . KetrzynskiP, osen, 1872; LudokolicZ arekM, . Fedorowski,
Warsaw, 1888-89; Z. Powrescii Piesni gdrali beskidowychR, . Zawilinski, Warsaw, 1889;
Jagodne, Z. Wasilewski, Warsaw, 1889.
Bohemian, Moravian, Slovakian.- Slowanske ndrodni pisne (Bohemian, Moravian,
Slovakian, and other), F. L. C elakowsky, 3 parts, Prague, 1822-27 and 1839-44; Ndrodnie
zpiewdnkyc ili pjsne swet ske'slowdkwu Uhrdch(P opularS ongs of the Slovaksi n Hungary),
J. Kollar,2 vols., Buda, 1834-35; Prostondrodnie skep isnt , etc., K.J . Erben,3 d ed. Prague,
1862-64; BohmischGe ranaten,C zechischVe olksliedeMr, . Waldau, 2 vols., Prague,1 858-60;
Moravsken drodnipisne,F .Susil, 2d ed. Briinn, 1860; Sborniks lovenskycnhd rodnichpiesni,
etc. Matica Slovenska,T urc St. Martin, i. 1870, ii. 1, 1874; Ndrodnipohddkypisnee,t c., by
the society "Slavia," Prague, 1873-75 (Narodni pisne, pohadky, etc.), 1877-78; Nove
ndrodni'pisnme oravskeF, . Bartos, Briinn, 1882.
Wendish.-
Volskliededr er Wendeni n der Ober- u. Nieder-Lausitz,L . Haupt and J. E.
Schmaler, Grimma, 1841-43; Delnjoluziskep esnje, E. Muka, Bautzen, 1877; Dodawk k
ludowympesnjamE, . Muka, Bautzen, 1883.
GeneralW orks.-Geschichtdee rs lavischenL iteraturenv, on A. V. Pypinu nd V. D. Spasovic,
ubertragen von T. Pech, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-84; Historical View of the Languages and
Literature of the Slavic Nations, etc., Talvj (Mrs. Robinson), New York, 1850; Slawische
Volksliede(rR ussian, Bohemian, Slovak, Bulgarian),J . Wenzig, Halle, 1830; Slawische
Balalaika (Russian, Little Russian, Carniolan, Polish), W. v. Waldbriihl, Leipzig, 1843.
Breton.-Barzaz-Breiz, Chantsp opulairesd e la BretagneT, h. Hersartd e la Villemarque,
Paris, 1867; Chantsp opulairesd e la Basse-BretagneF, . M. Luzel: Gwerziou Breiz-Izel, 2
vols., Lorient, 1868, 1874, SoniouB reiz-Izel, 2 vols., Paris, 1890; Chansonse t Danses des
BretonsN, . Quellien, Paris, 1889.
Of non-Indo-European races the more imporant collections are:
Finnish.-Finnische Runen (Finnish and German), by H. R. von Schr6ter, Stuttgart,
1834, Upsala, 1819, Stuttgart,1 875; KanteletarE, . Lonnrot, 2 vols., Helsingfors, 1840, in
one vol., 1864; Kalevala, ed. E. Lonnrot, Helsingfors, 1849, 1866 (compounded from
popular epic songs); Les Variantesd u Kalewala,J . Krohn (lst part), Helsingfors, 1888.
Esthonian.-EhstnischeV olksliedeorr, iginala nd translation,H . Neus, Reval,1 850-52; Vana
kannel, VollstandigSe ammlunga ltere stnicherV olksliede2r, vols., J. Hurt, Dorpat, 1884-86.
Magyar.-Nepdalok es Monddk (Songs and Tales), J. Erdelyi, 3 vols., Pesth, 1846-48;
Ausgewahlteu ngarischeV olksliedertr, anslateda nd edited by K. M. Kertbeny,D armstadt,
1851; Vadr6zsd(kW ild Roses, a collectiono f SzeklerP opularP oetry),J . Kriza,K lausenburg,
1863; MagyarN epkdltesGi yujtemen(yC ollection of MagyarP opularP oetry), L. Arany and
P. Gyulai, 3 vols., Pest, 1872, 1882; Koszorzk( Garlandsf rom Alfold), L. Kalmany,A rad,
1877. Turkish.-Probend erV olkslitteratudre rt urkischenS tammeS iid-SiberiensW, . Radlof,6
vols. of text and 6 of translation, St. Petersburg, 1866-86.
Of comprehensive w orks and collections the most noticeable a re: Stimmend er Volkerin
LiedernJ, . G. v. Herder, 1778, ed. byJ. v. Miiller, Tiibingen, 1807; Talvj (Mrs. Robinson),
Versucehi nergeschichtlichCenh arakteristidke rV olksliedergermaniscNheanti onen,e tc., Leipzig,
1840; Hausschatzd er VolkspoesiOe, . L. B. Wolff, Leipzig, 1853; Volksdichtungenno rd- u.
sideuropdischeVr olkera lteru . neuerZ eit, J. M. Firmenich, 1867.
F. J. Child